There is a distinct difference between the indwelling Holy Spirit and the empowering Holy Spirit. The empowering Holy Spirit, providing the ability to work signs, wonders, and miracles, was clearly imparted on selective occasions in both the OT and the NT. And while it seems that there were selective occasions of the indwelling Holy Spirit in the OT such as that which you sited relative to King David, there is no indication that it was either permanent or universal in believers in the OT. It is only in the NT post-Pentecost when indwelling became a permanent work of the Holy Spirit universally in the believers.I wonder if part of the difficulty here is that we may be blending categories that Scripture does not explicitly equate.
It certainly seems clear that no one ... Old Testament or New ....has ever believed apart from the work of the Spirit. Abraham believed God (Genesis 15:6), and genuine faith surely required spiritual life.
At the same time, Jesus says in John 14:17 that the Spirit was “with” the disciples but would later be “in” them. That suggests some kind of shift connected to the New Covenant and Pentecost.
So perhaps we need to distinguish between:
The Spirit giving life (regeneration), And the New Covenant, permanent indwelling/sealing ministry described after Christ’s glorification (Ephesians 1:13).
Those may be closely related, but Scripture does not explicitly say they functioned identically in every era.
David’s prayer in Psalm 51:11 (“take not Your Holy Spirit from me”) also suggests that the Spirit’s presence under the Old Covenant was not described in quite the same permanent sealing language we see later.
And regarding the order of salvation, I think we should also be careful not to state more than Scripture states. The Bible never explicitly says, “The Spirit regenerates someone months or years before they believe.” That is a theological construction, not a direct verse. While many hold that regeneration logically precedes faith, the text itself consistently presents faith and reception of the Spirit in very close connection (for example, Ephesians 1:13).
So rather than assuming Calvinism demands one conclusion, or that OT believers had no regenerative work of the Spirit, it might be more accurate to say....The Spirit has always been the source of spiritual life, but the covenantal indwelling ministry appears to reach its fullness at Pentecost.
That seems to preserve both continuity and development in redemptive history.
I would add here that even with the occasional and selective indwelling in the OT, there is no suggestion ever of regeneration prior to Pentecost.
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