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The Bronze age (8)

Near East​


West Asia and the Near East were the first regions to enter the Bronze Age, beginning with the rise of the Mesopotamian civilization of Sumer in the mid-4th millennium BC. Cultures in the ancient Near East practised intensive year-round agriculture; developed writing systems; invented the potter's wheel, created centralised governments (usually in the form of hereditary monarchies), formulated written law codes, developed city-states, nation-states and empires; embarked on advanced architectural projects; and introduced social stratification, economic and civil administration, slavery, and practised organised warfare, medicine, and religion. Societies in the region laid the foundations for astronomy, mathematics, and astrology.
 
The Bronze age (9)

Near East Bronze Age divisions​

The Bronze Age in the Near East can be divided into Early, Middle and Late periods. The dates and phases below apply solely to the Near East, not universally. However, some archaeologists propose a "high chronology", which extends periods such as the Intermediate Bronze Age by 300 to 500–600 years, based on material analysis of the southern Levant in cities such as Hazor, Jericho, and Beit She'an.

  • Early Bronze Age (EBA or EB): 3300–2100 BC
    • 3300–3000: EBA I
    • 3000–2700: EBA II
    • 2700–2200: EBA III
    • 2200–2100: EBA IV
  • Middle Bronze Age (MBA or MB) or Intermediate Bronze Age (IBA or IB): 2100–1550 BC
    • 2100–2000: MBA I
    • 2000–1750: MBA II A
    • 1750–1650: MBA II B
    • 1650–1550: MBA II C
  • Late Bronze Age (LBA or LB): 1550–1200 BC
 
The Bronze age (10)

Mesopotamia​


The Mesopotamian Bronze Age began c. 3500 BC and ended with the Kassite period c. 1500 – c. 1155 BC). The usual tripartite division into an Early, Middle and Late Bronze Age is not used in the context of Mesopotamia. Instead, a division primarily based on art and historical characteristics is more common.

The cities of the Ancient Near East housed several tens of thousands of people. Ur, Kish, Isin, Larsa, and Nippur in the Middle Bronze Age and Babylon, Calah, and Assur in the Late Bronze Age similarly had large populations. The Akkadian Empire (2335–2154 BC) became the dominant power in the region. After its fall, the Sumerians enjoyed a renaissance with the Neo-Sumerian Empire. Assyria, along with the Old Assyrian Empire (c. 1800–1600 BC), became a regional power under the Amorite king Shamshi-Adad I. The earliest mention of Babylon (then a small administrative town) appears on a tablet from the reign of Sargon of Akkad in the 23rd century BC. The Amorite dynasty established the city-state of Babylon in the 19th century BC. Over a century later, it briefly took over the other city-states and formed the short-lived First Babylonian Empire during what is also called the Old Babylonian Period.

Akkad, Assyria, and Babylonia used the written East Semitic Akkadian language for official use and as a spoken language. By that time, the Sumerian language was no longer spoken, but was still in religious use in Assyria and Babylonia, and would remain so until the 1st century AD. The Akkadian and Sumerian traditions played a major role in later Assyrian and Babylonian culture. Despite this, Babylonia, unlike the more militarily powerful Assyria, was founded by non-native Amorites and often ruled by other non-indigenous peoples such as the Kassites, Aramaeans and Chaldeans, as well as by its Assyrian neighbours.
 
The Bronze Age (11)

Mesopotamia began producing bronze around 3500 BC, when the Sumerians of the Tigris and Euphrates valley accidentally created it by mixing copper and tin ores. The resulting alloy proved stronger and more durable than copper, making it ideal for making improved tools, weapons, and household items. This innovation led to the development of the Bronze Age in the region, a period marked by significant technological advances, the growth of urban societies, and improved agriculture, which fostered civilization.

How it happened:

Chance discovery:

One theory suggests that copper- and tin-rich rocks, used for building campfire rings, melted and mixed together in the heat of fire, creating the first bronze. Impact of Bronze in Mesopotamia:

Agriculture:

Sturdier bronze tools enabled more efficient farming, leading to increased food production and supporting the growth of sedentary farming communities.

Experimental Smelting:

Early metallurgists, probably while experimenting with different clays and ores, discovered that adding tin to copper produced a harder and more useful alloy.

Technological Advances:

The discovery and subsequent development of bronze advanced metalworking, enabling the creation of new tools and weapons that revolutionized labor and warfare.

Crafts and Warfare:

Bronze's harder and more durable properties made it superior for weaponry, leading to increased warfare, and for making tools used in the manufacture of household items, pottery, and other goods.

Urbanization and Trade:

The ability to produce more food and goods led to increased trade and the development of larger, more complex urban societies between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.

The Bronze Age:

The invention of bronze marked the beginning of the Bronze Age (c. 3300–1100 BC), a pivotal period characterized by the rise of early civilizations and new innovations in architecture, writing, and social structures.
 
The Bronze age (12)
- Yes,it brought more violence on earth as the Bible says!

- As a consequence, Yah.weh decided to destroy mankind except Noah and his family!

- Now it is difficult to situate the flood in the process!

- I will have to investigate it!

- First, some angels went down on the earth!

- Second, they took control of the earth!

- They transmitted technology to human beings!

- This has allowed humans to make an unimaginable leap forward!

- A leap that even today they are incapable of conceiving!

- Which logically should allow us to perceive how limited humans are!

- I say it should allow us to perceive, but which, in fact, prevents us from perceiving it!

- A vicious circle that prevents humans from surpassing these limits!

- So, they are blind and will remain blind!
 
- I am going to study the populations of the first cities of Mesopotamia and Egypt to see who came first!

- The figures will clearly show that Mesopotamia developed before Egypt!

- Between 4000 BC to 3001 BC for Mesopotamia (especially Eridu and Uruk)!

- Around 3000 for Egypt or a bit before!
 
The 4th millennium BC, or the period from 4000 BC to 3001 BC, was a pivotal era for human civilization, marked by the beginning of the Bronze Age, the invention of writing in Mesopotamia, and the rise of prominent Sumerian city-states and the Egyptian kingdom. Significant innovations such as the wheel, potter's wheel, and early forms of the sailboat emerged, while the world population roughly doubled to 14 million.
Key Developments
  • Early Writing Systems:
    The 4th millennium BC saw the invention of writing, which is crucial for the beginning of recorded history.
Major Events and Regions
  • Mesopotamia:
    Sumerian civilization took shape, developing sophisticated systems of mathematics, astronomy, and complex hydrological systems.
Impact
  • Population Growth:
    The world population roughly doubled during this millennium, from approximately 7 to 14 million people.
Rise of Urban Centers:
Sumerian city-states and the Egyptian kingdom grew in prominence, marking a shift towards more complex social structures.
Technological Advancements:
Key inventions included the wheel, potter's wheel, and the early sailboat.
Agricultural Expansion:
Agriculture spread widely across Eurasia, supporting the growing population.
Social and Economic Changes:
Craft specialization emerged to meet the needs of a growing population and increasing social stratification.
Egypt:
The unification of the kingdom of Egypt began, and Hierakonpolis and Abydos became centers of intensified social differentiation.
Sahara Desert:
A severe aridification event, the Neolithic Subpluvial's end around 3900 BC, likely triggered migrations from central North Africa to the Nile valley.
Foundation of Civilization:
This era laid the groundwork for subsequent civilizations by fostering complex societies, monumental architecture, and organized states.
 
- Chronology of the Sumerian city of Eridu: (1)

Eridu was founded around 5400 BCE, becoming one of the oldest cities in Sumerian civilization and a major religious center dedicated to the god Enki. The city evolved from a small settlement to a flourishing urban center through the Ubaid Period (c. 5000–4100 BCE), reaching its peak in the Early Dynastic Period and remaining an important pilgrimage site until its final abandonment around 600 BCE, likely due to environmental factors.
Founding and Early Growth (c. 5400–4000 BCE)
  • c. 5400 BCE:
    Eridu was founded on a virgin sand dune, with the earliest settlements preceding the fully developed Ubaid period.
Rise to Prominence (c. 2900–2100 BCE)
  • c. 2900 BCE:
    Eridu was an influential city-state and home to the largest temple dedicated to the god of wisdom, Enki.
Peak and Religious Significance (c. 2100–1800 BCE)
  • Ur III Period (2047–1750 BCE):
    Eridu reached its height during this period, with the construction of a major ziggurat dedicated to Enki.
Decline and Abandonment (c. 1800–600 BCE)
  • Environmental Factors: The city faced environmental changes, including desertification due to receding coastlines and the encroaching Persian Gulf.
Ubaid Period (c. 5000–4100 BCE):
Construction of the first temple to Enki, a key deity, marked Eridu as a significant religious center. The city grew into a proto-urban settlement, evidenced by its successive temple layers.
Early Dynastic Period:
The city developed further, with excavations revealing royal palaces and significant temple complexes.
Pilgrimage Center:
The city's importance was religious rather than political, as it remained a major pilgrimage destination for people from across Mesopotamia.

Decline: As the city lost its importance, it continued to be inhabited but as a shadow of its former glory, losing its spiritual and economic significance.

c. 600 BCE: Eridu was finally abandoned.
 
- Evolution of the population of the Sumerian city of Eridu:(2)

Eridu, considered the oldest Sumerian city, was founded around 5400 BCE and grew from a small settlement into a significant urban center, reaching its zenith in the 4th millennium BC before its decline and final abandonment around 600 BCE. The city initially supported a population through fishing and later through agriculture, but its growth was likely marked by intermittent periods of decline and renewal, possibly due to environmental factors like land overuse and salinization, and shifts in political dynamics, before its eventual desertion.
Early Development (c. 5400 - 4th Millennium BC)
  • Initial Settlement:
    Eridu began as a small settlement, with its earliest structures dating to the 6th millennium BCE.
Peak and Flourishing (4th Millennium BC)
  • Urbanization:
    Eridu reached its highest population and development during the 4th millennium BC, becoming a significant cultural and economic hub.
Decline and Abandonment (Late 4th Millennium BCE - 600 BCE)
  • Fluctuations and Decline:
    The city experienced phases of decline and abandonment, with reasons speculated to include environmental issues.
Founding Cultures:
The city's population was a blend of diverse cultures, including peasant farmers (Ubaid culture), nomadic pastoralists, and marsh-dwelling fisher folk, all united by the region's crucial water resources.
Economic Base:
Initially, the economy was based on fishing, with evidence of sophisticated irrigation systems, reed boats, and fishing nets.
Religious Significance:
The city was a major religious center, home to the E-abzu temple dedicated to Enki, the god of water and wisdom.
Population Growth:
As a popular religious and trade center, Eridu attracted a diverse population of merchants, artisans, and pilgrims, supporting a robust agricultural economy.
Infrastructure:
Sophisticated irrigation systems were developed to support the growing population and agricultural activities.
Environmental Factors:
A primary theory suggests that continuous irrigation led to increased salinity in the groundwater and soil, making agriculture unsustainable.
Final Abandonment:
Eridu was eventually abandoned around 600 BCE, likely due to the cumulative effects of land degradation and environmental changes that rendered the area unsustainable for large populations.
 
Eridu (3)

Early Development (c. 5400 - 4th Millennium BC)

  • Initial Settlement:
    Eridu began as a small settlement, with its earliest structures dating to the 6th millennium BCE.
Peak and Flourishing (4th Millennium BC)
  • Urbanization:
    Eridu reached its highest population and development during the 4th millennium BC (from 4000 BC to 3001 BC), becoming a significant cultural and economic hub.
 
The Bronze age (13)

Egypt started making bronze when people discovered that mixing tin with copper created a harder, more durable alloy, a technology that began around 3000 BC and became more widespread during the New Kingdom. Initially, Egyptians used naturally arsenic-rich copper ores, but as they learned to intentionally add tin, they developed true tin-based bronze. This innovation allowed for the creation of better tools, weapons, and vessels, marking a significant technological advancement and the beginning of Egypt's Bronze Age.

The Discovery and Early Development

  • From Copper to Bronze:
    Ancient Egyptians, like other civilizations, initially worked with pure copper, a relatively soft metal.
Factors Leading to the Use of Bronze

  • Improved Properties:
    Bronze is harder and more durable than pure copper, and it has a lower melting point, making it easier to cast into complex shapes for tools, weapons, and larger objects.
Impact on Egyptian Society

  • Widespread Use: By the New Kingdom (c. 1550-1069 BC), tin bronze was in common use.
Accidental Alloying:
Early bronze artifacts were likely the result of accidental alloying, where copper ores naturally mixed with tin or arsenic-rich ores during smelting.

Arsenical Copper vs. Tin Bronze:
Early Egyptian copper often naturally contained arsenic, making it a type of arsenical copper that was harder than pure copper but still a different alloy than true tin bronze.

The Shift to Tin Bronze:
Around 3000 BC, a shift occurred towards intentionally adding tin to copper, leading to the creation of true tin bronze. This allowed for a more controlled and superior product.

Technological Advancements:
The development of more sophisticated smelting techniques, including the use of foot bellows to increase furnace temperatures, was crucial for processing bronze.

Trade and Resources:
The availability of tin, though not as widespread as copper, became essential. The development of trade in tin, particularly with regions like Cyprus, facilitated the spread of bronze technology.

Sophisticated Civilization: The Bronze Age saw Egypt become a more technologically advanced and sophisticated civilization, as bronze replaced stone for many implements and weapons.
 
The Bronze age (14)

Mining in the Ancient World​

Evidence of mining activities has been discovered from days well before recorded history. The oldest of these ancient mines was found in Swaziland in Africa, where the remains of tools and signs of activities around a soft haematite ore deposit were carbon dated to 41,000 BCE.

The first societies to use metals on a large scale emerged in Mesopotamia around 3500 BCE and Egypt around 3000 BCE, according to the Canada Institute of Mining, which means that mining operations had to grow to keep up with the demand. Egyptian copper mines were mostly concentrated in the Nubian Desert in northern Sudan and the Timna Valley in modern Israel, huge underground operations with shafts up to 30 meters deep.

Mining began to truly evolve with Roman innovations, including aqueducts, according to Ancient History. This architectural invention was used to power mill machines, together creating a prototype for the on-site materials processing center. The aqueducts would also fill large tanks for techniques like hushing and fire-quenching.

Hushing consisted of unleashing the tanks of water into the mine to wash away earth and expose the resource being extracted below. In fire-quenching, water was released from the tanks to fracture rock that had been previously heated. The quick cooling of the stone would cause it to break and reveal vital metals for collection.
 
The Bronze age (15)

The Maykop culture started making bronze, specifically arsenical bronze, independently in the North Caucasus as early as the mid-4th millennium BC. Their advanced understanding of metallurgy allowed them to discover and refine bronze, an alloy of copper and other metals like arsenic, which provided harder tools and weapons than pure copper. This early development of bronze technology by the Maykop culture predates its widespread use in other parts of Europe and Asia, making them producers of some of the earliest known bronze.
The Discovery of Bronze
  • Accidental Discovery:
    Bronze was likely discovered when copper, being heated at low temperatures for tools or during campfire construction, unintentionally mixed with other metals present in the surrounding rocks, such as arsenic.
Key Factors
  • Resource-Rich Region:
    The Caucasus region was rich in metal resources, making it a prime location for the early development of metallurgy.
Impact
  • Advancement in Technology:
    The independent discovery and use of arsenical bronze by the Maykop culture represent a significant advancement in ancient technology.
  • Early Bronze Production:
    The Maykop culture was one of the first societies to produce bronze, establishing them as pioneers in metalworking during the early Bronze Age.
Maykop's Innovation:
The Maykop culture in the North Caucasus region developed the technology to deliberately produce arsenical bronze, creating a harder metal than pure copper.
Cultural Exchange:
While the Maykop culture had indigenous origins, their development of metalworking likely benefited from cultural exchanges, particularly with pastoralist groups.
 
The Bronze age (16)

Indus Valley​


The Bronze Age on the Indian subcontinent began c. 3300 BC with the beginning of the Indus Valley Civilization. Inhabitants of the Indus Valley, the Harappans, developed new techniques in metallurgy and produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin. The Late Harappan culture (1900–1400 BC), overlapped the transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age; thus it is difficult to date this transition accurately. It has been claimed that a 6,000-year-old copper amulet manufactured in Mehrgarh in the shape of a wheel spoke is the earliest example of lost-wax casting in the world.

The civilisation's cities were noted for their urban planning, baked brick houses, elaborate drainage systems, water supply systems, clusters of large non-residential buildings, and new techniques in handicraft (carnelian products, seal carving) and metallurgy (copper, bronze, lead, and tin).The large cities of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa likely grew to contain between 30,000 and 60,000 people, and the civilisation during its florescence may have contained between one and five million people.

The Harappans started making bronze by first mining local copper, often from the Khetri mines in Rajasthan, and then acquiring tin, which was sourced from distant regions like Afghanistan through extensive trade networks. They melted these metals together at high temperatures, carefully controlling the mix and temperature to create the bronze alloy. The molten bronze was then poured into molds, commonly made from clay, to cast objects such as tools, weapons, and ornamental items.

Acquiring the Metals

  • Copper:
    The Harappans had abundant local sources of copper ore. They mined it from regions like the Aravalli ranges and the Khetri mines in Rajasthan.
The Alloying Process

  1. Smelting: Copper ore was first smelted in furnaces to extract pure copper metal.
  2. Melting and Alloying: The copper and tin were then melted together at high temperatures, typically between 1,100 and 1,200 degrees Celsius. This process required skilled artisans to maintain precise control over the temperature and the ratio of copper to tin to achieve the desired bronze alloy.
Casting the Bronze

  • Molds:
    Once melted, the molten bronze was poured into prepared molds, which were typically made from clay or stone.
Products of Bronze

The Harappans used bronze to create a wide variety of artifacts, including:

  • Tools like knives, axes, and chisels
  • Weapons such as spears, daggers, and arrowheads
  • Ornamental items including rings, bangles, and statues
  • Vessels and cooking pots
Tin:
Unlike copper, tin was not locally abundant and was often obtained through trade with distant regions, possibly from Afghanistan or Oman.

Lost-Wax Technique:
For creating detailed figurines and statues, the Harappans used the "lost wax" (or cire perdue) technique.
 
The Bronze age (17)
Conclusion:

- According to a theory, the Bronze age started because of an accidental discovery!

- One theory suggests that copper and tin-rich rocks, used in the construction of campfire rings, melted and mixed when heated by the fire, creating the first bronze!

- Or it was transmitted by the angels who went down on the earth with other technologies!

- Imagine an accidental discovery which permitted human society to take a giant step!

- On the one hand, by chance, on the other hand by angels who had an incredible knowledge and experience accumulated through a long existence at Yah.weh's side!
 
- Chronology of the Sumerian city of Uruk: (1)

Uruk's chronology spans from its founding around 5000 BC through the Uruk period (4100-2900 BC), when it grew into the world's first great city, and into the Early Dynastic period (2900-2334 BC), when Gilgamesh may have reigned and built the city walls, before its eventual decline and abandonment after the Muslim Conquest in 630 CE. The city's phases, including the Early, Middle, and Late Uruk periods, mark significant developments in architecture, urbanism, and the invention of writing.
Early Uruk Period (c. 4000–3800 BC)
  • Founding and Early Growth: Uruk's origins are linked to the Ubaid period, with the city's expansion and the development of its core features occurring from about 4000 BC.
Middle Uruk Period (c. 3800–3400 BC)
  • Urban Expansion: The city continued to expand significantly during this phase.
Late Uruk Period (c. 3400–3100 BC)
  • The "Uruk Civilization":
    This period saw the definitive establishment of the characteristics of Uruk culture and a peak in urban development.
Jemdet Nasr Period (c. 3100–2900 BC)
  • City Walls: The massive 9-kilometer city wall of Uruk was built during this phase, according to tradition and the Sumerian King List.
Early Dynastic Period (c. 2900–2334 BC)
  • City-State Dominance:
    Uruk remained a center of power, even as other city-states rose in Mesopotamia.
Later History and Decline
  • Continued Importance:
    Uruk continued to be a significant religious and cultural center into the Seleucid and Parthian periods.
  • Final Abandonment:
    The city was abandoned and its ruins were left to time after the Muslim Conquest of Mesopotamia in 630 CE.

Temple Construction: The Eanna and Anu temple districts began to take shape.

Technological Advancements: The first mass-produced bowls and the beginnings of writing emerged during this time, laying the groundwork for the Uruk period's achievements.
Monumental Architecture:
The earliest monumental temples were built in the Eanna District, with the White Temple constructed atop the Anu Ziggurat around 3200-3000 BC.
Increased Influence:
Uruk's cultural and economic influence extended throughout the Near East, with artifacts found from Iran to Egypt.
King Gilgamesh:
The legendary King Gilgamesh, known for his epic adventures, is associated with this period, possibly having reigned around 2700 BC and ordering the construction of the city's walls.
 
- Evolution of the population of the Sumerian city of Uruk: (2)

The Sumerian city of Uruk evolved from a modest settlement into the world's first mega-city and a major urban center, peaking in population around 3100 BC with an estimated 40,000-80,000 residents in its peak period. This growth was part of the broader Uruk period (c. 4100–2900 BCE), a time of rapid urbanization and societal development, after which the city's influence began to wane, though it remained inhabited until around 300 CE.
Early Growth and Uruk Period (c. 4100–3100 BC)
  • Founding and early stages:
    Uruk was founded around 5000 BC, and by the early phases of the Uruk Period (c. 4100-3300 BC), the city was a growing settlement.
Decline and Later History
  • Shift in importance:
    After the Uruk Period and the rise of the Akkadian Empire, Uruk lost some of its prime importance and influence.
Rapid expansion:
During the final phase of the Uruk period (c. 3100 BC), Uruk experienced a dramatic population surge, becoming the largest urban area in the world.
Population peak:
At its height around 3100 BC, the city housed an estimated 40,000 to 80,000 residents, with up to 90,000 people living in its environs.
Urban complexity:
This unprecedented population density was accompanied by monumental architecture, administrative complexes, and densely packed residential neighborhoods, making it a model for future urban development.
Continued habitation:
The city continued to be inhabited for centuries, though its population and power were likely smaller than during its peak.
Abandonment:
Uruk was eventually deserted around 300 CE due to depleted natural resources and other factors, leading to its abandonment and burial until its excavation in the 19th century.
 
Uruk (3)

  • Founding and early stages:
    Uruk was founded around 5000 BC, and by the early phases of the Uruk Period (c. 4100-3300 BC), the city was a growing settlement.
 
- Chronology of the Sumerian city of Ur: (1)

The city of Ur, a major Mesopotamian center, was established around 3800 BCE and reached its peak of power and cultural achievements during the Third Dynasty (2047–1750 BCE), when the Great Ziggurat was built by Ur-Nammu. After a period of decline following its sacking by the Elamites around 1750 BCE, it saw a revival under Nabonidus in the 6th century BCE before falling into disuse by the Achaemenid Empire and being largely abandoned.
Early History & Rise to Prominence
  • Circa 3800 BCE: Ur was founded as a small settlement on the banks of the Euphrates River.
The Height of Ur's Power: The Third Dynasty (2047–1750 BCE)
  • Ur-Nammu (c. 2100 BCE):
    The first king of the Third Dynasty began the construction of the Great Ziggurat. The Code of Ur-Nammu, the oldest known legal code, was also written during this time.
Decline and Revival
Later Periods and Rediscovery
  • By the 5th Century BCE:
    Ur had largely declined and become abandoned with the rise of the Achaemenid Empire.
  • 1854 AD:
    British explorer J.E. Taylor conducted the first major archaeological excavations.
  • 1922–1934 AD:
    Sir Leonard Woolley led extensive excavations that uncovered the city's famous Royal Tombs.

Early Dynastic Period (c. 2900–2334 BCE): Ur became a prominent capital city in southern Mesopotamia and a major center for trade and cultural influence.
Shulgi (2047–2050 BCE):
Ur-Nammu's son, Shulgi, further centralized the state, creating a highly bureaucratic and efficient administrative system.
Cultural Golden Age:
The Third Dynasty is considered the "Sumerian Renaissance," marked by significant architectural achievements, scientific pursuits, and high living standards for residents.

Circa 1750 BCE: Ur suffered a significant decline after being captured and sacked by the Elamites, leading to its abandonment and loss of prominence.

6th Century BCE: The city saw a brief revival under Nabonidus, the last king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, who undertook reconstruction efforts.
 

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